The world will not end with a crash, but in a whisper..." 
by Ian Forrest, March 10, 1998
Energy is life. Life on this planet depends upon a fixed amount of energy. The modern industrialized energy sources such as coal and petroleum were originally utilized for their seeming promiscuity and high energies yielded per unit volume. The world has now become painfully aware of how finite petroleum reserves are, not to mention the political complications associated with being dependent upon foreign countries for an energy supply. To add insult to injury, the limitedness of petroleum resources is not the most pressing problem, their polluting byproducts are. The enormous amounts of byproduct waste that finds its way into our environment is having effects which even the most renowned of experts cannot determine in magnitude. Speaking from an economic standpoint, petroleum will soon become more expensive to find and utilize than reasonable alternatives, raising it’s costs far above it’s benefits. Some could already make the point that the social and environmental costs never were weighed appropriately into the cost/benefit analysis of petroleum and that the benefits associated with petroleum combustion have rarely or never outweighed it’s costs. This point will gain a painful clarity in the years to come if the predictions of some meteorologists come true and the effects of global warming are felt. For years developing societies have been taking enormous amounts of potential energy locked within pressurized biomass that took millions of years to store in the Earth’s crust and releasing it into today’s world. The Earth is a relatively closed system and the enormous release of spent energy and its polluting byproducts will have untold effects upon societies for generations to come. The most brazen and reckless part of this scenario is simply that; the effects of our actions are unknown and will not be felt until years or even generations after. The straw that breaks the camel’s back could fall with a whisper, 100 years before the full ramifications of that ‘straw’ are known. 
In the more developed countries (MDC) of the world, the average electricity capacity is roughly 1 KW per person and growing . At current rates of growth the population of the world is projected to reach 10,000 million during the next century. If all today's developing countries reach a standard of living comparable to the MDC's of today the global demand for electricity is likely to require some10,000 million KW of capacity, about 10 times its present level. At our present technological advance, the world is not capable of accomplishing this energy output level. Coal, oil, gas, nuclear fuel are all limited fossil resources, and in addition nuclear technologies have great dangers associated with them. Nuclear energy is a viable energy source, but the potential for accident and our current lack of knowledge as to how to handle the poisonous byproducts outweigh its energy benefits. 

As we search for the energy sources that are to sustainable power the world, it is important that we concentrate our research upon sources of energy that are renewable ,perpetual and clean. Climatic, economic and supply factors must be taken into account but short term considerations of price, supply and demand cannot be allowed to take sole precedence in determining what the fuels and energy sources the future will incorporate. 

Coal Conversion
Coal conversion, while not satisfying the standard of renewability in depending upon fossil fuels , would be considered a good transition technology to stabilize regions while a smooth and progressive transition is made over to alternative energy systems. This alternative fuel source that is currently utilized for approximately one half of South Africa’s gasoline supply comes from methanol produced from synthetic gas (CO(g) + 2H2 = CH3OH(l) )(Zumdahl,1997). Syngas developed from coal is being endorsed as an energy efficient alternative to the traditional burning of coal itself. Substances like coal that contain large molecules tend to be solids or thick liquids. Through a process called coal gasification, the large molecules of the coal are broken up using steam and oxygen at high temperatures to form a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen or syngas and methane. All the componantes of this product will react with oxygen to release heat making this gas a useful fuel that can also be used as a raw material to produce other fuels. Methanol is used in the production of synthetic fibers and plastics and can be converted directly to gasoline as in the methanol example above. 
Coal slurries have also been experimented with as alternatives to replace traditional coal and residual oil as fuel for coal burning electric plants. Coal slurries are suspensions of fine particles of pulverized coal suspended in water that can be handled , stored and burned like the residual oil, a heavy petroleum based fuel oil. The immediate problem associated with slurries is the burden placed upon the water resources. Especially in drier areas, the extra allocation of precious water resources makes this alternative to coal less feasible. 

It's true that the two methods discussed above are alternatives to the direct burning of coal for fuel. But it must be taken into consideration that these coal fuel sources still employ the consumption of a substance that will be economically finite in the foreseeable future. In addition to the fact that it produces harmful byproducts and may contribute to global warming. Research dollars would be better spent in the development and research of renewable, inexhaustible and non polluting fuel sources. 
  

Hydrogen as Fuel
Hydrogen has great potential as a fuel. The Hydrogen-Oxygen mixture ignited (H2(g) + 1/2O2(g) = H2O(l) + Energy (286kJ) (Zumdahl,1997) produces about 2.5 times the energy per gram of natural gas combustion. One of the key differences between the combustion of hydrogen and fossil fuels for energy is that the only product produced by hydrogen combustion is water, while fossil fuels produce Carbon Dioxide ( CH4 + 2O2 = 2H2O + CO2 + Energy) (Zumdahl, 1997). Even though hydrogen appears as the next reliable fuel source, large problems remain unresolved in the cost of its production, storage and transport. 

Hydrogen , while very abundant on earth , almost never exists as a free gas, so other hydrogen compounds need to be treated in order to make hydrogen gas. Currently the treatment of method with steam is used to produce the hydrogen gas ( CH4 (g) + H2O = 3H2 (g) + CO (g) ) (Zumdahl,1997) but this reaction requires a lot of energy to make the hydrogen gas . It is currently more economical to simply burn the methane instead of using it to get the hydrogen used for fuel. In addition, this method of achieving hydrogen endorses a reliance upon natural gas as well as producing Carbon Monoxide as a byproduct. 

A virtually inexhaustible supply of hydrogen exists within the oceans that cover over seventy percent of the Earth's surface. The reaction (H2O = H2(g) + 1/2 O2 (g)) (Zumdahl,1997) requires a substantial amount of energy per unit of water (286kJ per mole) to produce the hydrogen, hence the production of hydrogen from water on a large scale is not currently feasible. Several methods for such large scale production are currently being studied. Electrolysis of water, which involves the passing of an electrical current through water to separate the hydrogen, is readily feasible but the current price of electricity inhibits this process. If more efficient sources were found to generate electricity this method would become applicable in producing hydrogen. Thermal decomposition of water involves the heating of water to many thousands of degrees where the water decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen. Attaining temperatures in this range would be very expensive even with a readily available and practical heat source. Currently it is possible using a nuclear reactor but research is being conducted presently to find a system for which the required temperatures are low enough that sunlight can be used as the energy source. The idea of using the biological decomposition of water to produce hydrogen has had very limited results. It involves attempts to modify the photosynthetic process so that plants will release the hydrogen gas form water instead of using it to produce complex compounds. 

The storage and transportation of hydrogen also presents problems. The hydrogen gas on metal surfaces decomposes to atoms which are so small they can penetrate the metal causing structural changes which make it brittle. This could lead to a pipeline failure or container rupture if hydrogen is pumped or stored under high pressure. Another consideration is that hydrogen compared to methane produces a small amount of energy per unit volume. Per gram hydrogen produces 2.5 times the energy that methane does. But per unit volume, given that one gram of hydrogen has many more molecules present per gram than does one gram of methane, hydrogen produces about one third the energy that the same molar volume of methane. This is the problem that inhibits the use of hydrogen as a fuel for automobiles. The internal combustion engines can be easily modified to burn hydrogen. The primary difficulty is in the storage of enough hydrogen to give an automobile a reasonable range. For example, at STP, a volume of 238,000 L of hydrogen is required to replace the energy capacity of twenty gallons of gasoline. 

This volume is clearly not practical for an automobile, so the hydrogen must be stored in other ways. To store it as a liquid would be very expensive. Given its low boiling point (20K= -253 degrees C) the need for a superinsulated container that could withstand high pressures would be costly and dangerous given the potential for explosion. A much better alternative is the utilization of metals that absorb hydrogen to form solid metal hydrides ( H2 (g) + Metal (s) = MH2 ) (Zumdahl,1997). Hydrogen gas is added to a tank containing the metal in powdered form, where it is absorbed to form the hydride whose volume would occupy little more than the metal itself. In 1992, Mazda unveiled a hydrogen powered car whose speeds can exceed ninety miles per hour and has a range of 120 miles using one tank of hydrogen gas. 
  

Alcohols and Sunflowers
Ethanol (C2H5OH) and Methanol (CH3OH) are two other fuels that have potential to supplement or replace gasoline. Ethanol is produced through fermentation, the process by which sugars are changed to alcohol's by yeast. The sugars can come from virtually any source.Car engines can burn alcohol or gasohol, (ten percent ethanol in gasoline) with little modification. Gasohol is already in wide use in the United States. The use of pure alcohol as fuel is not feasible in most parts of the United States given that alcohol does not readily vaporize when temperatures are low. Pure ethanol is however, very practical in warm climates. In Brazil for example , large quantities of ethanol fuel are being produced for cars. Methanol has been used successfully for many years in race cars and is currently being used in California with specially designed vehicles. The California Energy Commission feels that methanol has great potential for providing a secure, long term energy supply that would alleviate air quality problems (Zumdahl,1997). 

Another potential fuel comes from plant and seed oils. Farmers in North Dakota, South Africa and Australia are now using sunflower oil to replace diesel fuel. Oil seeds found in many plants can be processed to produce an oil composed mainly of carbon and hydrogen that in turn reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water and heat. In terms of air pollution the results are, unfortunately, similar to the combustion of fossil fuels. The main advantage of seed oil as fuel is that it is renewable; fuel would be grown just like food crops. This would have other benefits, minimizing the harmful environmental impacts that the mining and drilling for petroleum have upon the ocean ecosystems and other sensitive habitats. It is prudent to point out that newer, cleaner methods of combustion may not be the answer. In a sense these newer, cleaner methods may simply prolong a change in the ways we think about technology and progress. 
  

Solar Power " the most rational source of power " Frank Shuman
Solar power can save on utility bills (after air conditioning, electric water heaters are the biggest consumers of power), reduce oil imports, creates job (like any appliance, the equipment must be manufactured, transported, distributed, sold, installed and maintained, all of these activities create jobs.) and reduce air pollution. "The average automobile produces 5 to 6 tons of CO2 pollution a year. The average solar water heater, through the reduction of power plant emissions, eliminates 6 to 7 tons of CO2 a year. So you might say that every time a solar water heater is installed, one polluting automobile is removed from the highway" ( Carrison, 1994 ). One example of the small scale benefits, especially to those in rural areas or to remote medical facilities, would be the provision of a steady reliable source of hot water. Some of the commercial applications for solar water heating include use in restaurants, breweries, laundries, hospitals, medical clinics, hotels, health spas, beauty salons, agricultural processing, bottling operations, food processing and clean up, schools, prisons, car washes, distillation, desalination, water purification, ground pollution remediation, water pumping, mechanical energy, pasteurization, sterilization, crop drying, detoxification of hazardous wastes, textile drying and washing, chemical industry uses, ceramic industry uses, pulp & paper making, and non CFC air conditioning and refrigeration systems. 

Efforts to design and construct devices for supplying renewable energy actually began about 135 years ago, at the very height of the Industrial Revolution, which ironically, was largely founded on the promise of seemingly inexhaustible supplies of fossil fuels. Many early engineers concentrated their focus on solar power, reasoning that the potential rewards outweighed the technical barriers. In less than 50 years, these pioneers developed innovative techniques for capturing solar radiation, producing the steam used to power the machines of that era. Before World War I, they had outlined all of the solar thermal conversion methods being considered in modern times. Despite their technical successes and innovative designs, their work was largely forgotten for the next 50 years in the rush to develop the proven fossil fuels for an expanding an energy-hungry world. 

Despite the rapid, early advances in solar mechanical technology, the future progress of solar power was slowed to a halt by developments in the use and transport of fossil fuels. Oil and coal companies had established a massive infrastructure, stable markets, and ample supplies. In addition to trying to perfect the technology, early solar inventors needed to make the world see solar energy as something more than a curiosity. 100 years ago, the instant gratification of fossil fuels energies precluded the viability of solar electricity generating systems. Continuing that short sighted trend , modern society still seems to want to rely upon the improvement and adaptation of existing energy technologies and not experiment (or fund seriously) the alternatives. 

In recent years, Luz, producer of more than 95 percent of the world's solar-based electricity in the late 1980's , had built more than nine solar power facilities, providing a total of 275 megawatts of power and was able to drop the cost of solar generated electricity to twelve cents a kilowatt hour. They were planning to construct a 300 megawatt facility that would have dropped the price even further to six cents per kilowatt hour. A price that would have been near the price of electricity produced by coal, petroleum, or nuclear technologies. Luz filed for bankruptcy in 1991. The demise of the already meager tax credits, declining fossil fuel prices, and lack of future assistance from both federal and state governments lead investors to withdraw from the projects. As said by Luz's chairman of the board, "The failure of the world's largest solar electric company was not due to technological or business judgment failures but rather to failures of government regulatory bodies to recognize the economic and environmental benefits of solar thermal generating plants"( Smith,1995 ). 

" Solar technology already boasts a century of R&D, requires no toxic fuel and relatively little maintenance, is inexhaustible, and, with adequate financial support, is capable of becoming directly competitive with conventional technologies in many locations" (Smith, 1995 ). These attributes make solar energy one of the most promising sources for many current and future energy needs. It is, "the most rational source of power."(Smith,1995) 
  

SPS Concept
About 80 % of the total energy demanded by our society is supplied from fossil fuels and 90% of the greenhouse gas CO2 comes from their combustion. It is now widely accepted that the only way to reduce the environmental risks while sustaining the economic growth is to develop functioning, large-scale alternative energy system which is ecologically benign. The SPS (Solar Power Satellite or Satellite Power System) is designed to convert the solar energy in space for use on the ground . The solar power intensity in space near the earth orbit is 5-10 times higher than that of ground on average. The solar energy is converted to an electrical power in orbit and then transmitted to ground by microwave. On the ground, the microwave power is converted to the commercial electric power. The idea of the SPS was originated by Peter Glaser in 1968 as an alternative energy source. During the 1970's, the concept of the SPS was extensively investigated jointly by the Department of Energy and NASA. The SPS was overzealous in its auto-description as a potential national power system for the U.S. . Lacking in the initial degree of success that its description implied, it was dicontinued as a subject of intense reaearch. 

There has been significant progress in the technologies which can be applied to the SPS. This coupled with the growing public interest in alternative energies, spawned the new push by a Japanese organization to develop a functional SPS system. As the SPS uses the limitless solar energy, utilizes the space outside of the earth ecology system, and it has no by-product waste, it could prove invaluable in helping to solve the modern environmental dilemma between power, progress and protecting the integrity of the Earth's ecosystems. The potential output of an SPS system is essentially limitless. It could be of enormous value for today's developing countries, giving them easy access to energy resources, and allowing them to develop and progress without compromising the character of their landscape in mining pursuits or deforestation. Unfortunately, if current space technologies are directly applied to the SPS, the energy cost would be extremely high, further technological advances are needed to make this project feasible. 

Wind Energy
Wind is the natural movement of air across the land or sea. Wind is caused by uneven heating and cooling of the earth's surface and by the earth's rotation. Land and water areas absorb and release different amount of heat received from the sun. As warm air rises, cooler air rushes in to take its place, causing local winds. The rotation of the earth changes the direction of the flow of air, producing prevailing winds. Surface features such as mountains and valleys can change the direction and speed of prevailing winds. Wind power is harnessing the wind with turbines to produce mechanical power or electricity. 
The wind turns the blades of a windmill-like machine which turn the shaft to which they are attached. The turning shaft typically can either power a pump or turn a generator which produces the electricity. Most wind machines have vertical blades attached to a horizontal shaft. The Darrieus wind machine has two or three long curved blades on a vertical shaft, resembling a large eggbeater in shape. The Darrieus machine provides ease of maintenance as the operating gears and controls are located close to the ground, but it needs power assistance to start turning. " The amount of energy produced by a wind machine depends upon the wind speed and the size of the blades in the machine. In general, when the wind speed doubles, the power produced increases eight times. Larger blades capture more wind. As the diameter of the circle formed by the blades doubles, the power increases four times "( State of Hawaii.... ). 

The endorsement of wind power has many benefits. Given the constant rotation of the Earth ,wind is a renewable energy resource. In addition, it is a free and non-polluting commodity, producing no emissions or chemical wastes. The use of wind power as a source of electricity can help reduce the dependence on imported fossil fuels, politically stabilizing a region and furthering its indigence. Wind power can be used with battery storage or pumped hydra-energy storage systems to provide a steady flow of energy. Wind farms can also be combined with other land uses such as agricultural activities . Wind power is a proven technology and has been used to generate electricity for many years. The technology and equipment required for wind machines is commercially available. Furthermore most states offer incentives for using alternative energy systems. For example, Hawaii offers a 20 percent tax credit for the cost of buying and installing a wind energy device. 

Some of the disadvantages to wind power generation include the basic fact that wind machines must be located where strong, dependable winds are available most of the time. In addition, because winds do not blow strongly enough to produce power all the time, energy from wind machines is considered "intermittent," or not constant. Therefore, electricity from wind machines must have a back-up supply from another source. As wind power is "intermittent," utility companies can use it for only part of their total energy needs. Structurally, wind towers and turbine blades are subject to damage from high winds and lightning and the rotating parts, which are located high off the ground, can be difficult and expensive to repair. Electricity produced by wind power sometimes fluctuates in voltage and power factor, which can cause difficulties in linking its power to a utility system .The noise made by rotating wind machine blades can annoy nearby neighbors. People have complained about aesthetics of and avian mortality from wind machines. 

California has the largest number of wind machines with more than 16,000. This state leads the nation with the capacity to produce about 1,700 megawatts (MW) in total capacity and produce approximately 3.4 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity annually (State of Hawaii... ). 
  

Geothermal Energy
Heat contained within the Earth that can be recovered and put to useful work is called geothermal energy. Usually found near centers of volcanic activity, it can be in the form of steam, hot liquid, or hot dry rock. A deep well is drilled to bring the steam or hot fluids to the surface. The steam produced by the fluids, is used to drive a turbine generator to make electricity. Modern technology allows spent geothermal fluids and non-condensable gases to be reinjected back into the ground, eliminating air pollution and minimizing the impacts of teh process upon the Earth. (State of Hawaii... ) Low- to moderate-temperature (20°C to 150°C [68°F to 302°F]) geothermal resources in the United States are widespread and are used to provide direct heat for homes and industry. High-temperature (above 150°C [302°F]) geothermal resources in the United States, present primarily in the west, are used in electric power generation.( State of Hawaii... ) 

Like all alternative energy sources, geothermal energy can be used instead of fossil fuels to produce electricity. Petroleum products do not have to be imported from foreign countries or parts of the United States which require shipping over several thousand miles, lessening the possibility of oil spills. Replacing fossil fuels will reduce the amount of air pollutants which can cause acid rain and contribute to global warming. A 30-megawatt geothermal power plant displaces the need to burn about 500,000 barrels of fuel oil every year and also eliminates more than 220,000 tons of CO2 that an equivalent oil-fired plant would have emitted (State of Hawaii... ).Where a possibility, geothermal power can provide a steady amount of power 24 hours a day regardless of weather conditions. Direct-use geothermal heat has been used successfully to aid agricultural production; to dry lumber, fruits and vegetables; and to assist certain manufacturing processes . 

The exploration and development of geothermal resources can be permitted within conservation, agricultural, rural, and urban areas. Some geothermal resources however, may only be found in areas where some local residents may not want geothermal activities to occur such as sensitive habitat, endangered ecosystems or residential areas. An uncontrolled venting incident in June 1991 at the Puna Geothermal Venture project in Hawaii released hydrogen sulfide and other gases, causing some residents to remain concerned about potential emissions. On that same line, some native Hawaiians still oppose the development of geothermal power as interfering with their worship of Pele, the goddess of volcanoes, although it was found that geothermal development does not hinder the right to religious freedom. 

Geothermal projects are producing electricity in more than 15 countries around the world including Iceland, Italy, New Zealand, Philippines, Japan, Indonesia, Turkey, China, Mexico, Russia, El Savador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Guatemala. The largest and most successful geothermal development in the United States is at The Geysers, 90 miles north of San Francisco. In 1993, the geothermal wells in The Geysers area produced about 1,200 megawatts of electricity -- enough to meet the needs of a city of about 1.2 million people (State of Hawaii.... ). 
  

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
The technology for generating electricity from different ocean temperatures is known as "ocean thermal energy conversion," or OTEC. OTEC uses of the difference in temperature between the warm surface water of the ocean and the cold water in depths below 2,000 feet to generate electricity. As long as a minimum sufficient temperature difference of about 40 degrees Fahrenheit exists between the warm upper layer of water and the cold deep water, power can be generated. The three types of OTEC processes: closed-cycle, open-cycle, and hybrid-cycle, all are similar in process but vary in design. In the closed-cycle system, heat transferred from the warm surface sea water causes a working fluid (such as ammonia, which has a lower boiling point), to turn to vapor. The expanding vapor drives a turbine attached to a generator which produces electricity. The vaporized working fluid condenses back into a liquid which is then recycled through the system. 

Open-cycle OTEC uses the warm surface water itself as the working fluid. The water vaporizes at surface water temperatures. The expanding vapor drives a low-pressure turbine attached to a generator which produces electricity. The vapor, which has lost its salt and is almost pure fresh water, is condensed back into a liquid. If the vapor doesn't contact the sea water, the condensed water can be used for drinking water, irrigation or aquaculture. A "direct contact" condenser produces more electricity, but the vapor is mixed with cold sea water and the discharge water is salty and not pure. That mixture is returned to the ocean. The process is repeated with a continuous supply of warm surface sea water. Hybrid systems use parts of both open- and closed-cycle systems to optimize production of electricity and fresh water. 

OTEC uses clean, abundant, renewable, natural resources. Suitably designed OTEC plants will produce little or no carbon dioxide or other polluting chemicals which contribute to acid rain or global warming. Extensive research indicates little or no adverse environmental effects from discharging the used OTEC water back into the ocean at prescribed depths. Types of OTEC systems can produce fresh water as well as electricity, which is a significant advantage in island and or desert areas where fresh water is limited. It has been calculated that there is enough solar energy received and stored in the warm tropical ocean surface layer to provide most of present human energy needs. The cold sea water from the OTEC process has many additional uses, including air-conditioning buildings, assisting agriculture, and growing fish, shellfish, kelp and other sea plants which thrive in the cold, nutrient-rich, pathogen-free water. 

. OTEC does have disadvantages associated with the cost and technicalities of the projects. OTEC-produced electricity at present would cost more than electricity generated from fossil fuels at their current costs. Although there are no data on possible plant life cycles, the electricity cost could be reduced significantly if the plant operated without major overhaul for 30 years or more. OTEC plants must be located where a difference of about 40o Fahrenheit (F) occurs year round. Ocean depths must be available fairly close to shore-based facilities for economic operation, but floating plant ships could provide more flexibility. Although extensive and successful testing of OTEC has occurred in experiments on component parts or small scale plants, a pilot or demonstration plant of commercial size needs to be built to further document economic feasibility. One major concern would be the potential for the construction of OTEC plants and laying of pipes in coastal waters to cause damage to reefs and near-shore marine ecosystems. Some additional development of key components is essential to the success of future OTEC plants . 

Limited OTEC research continues in other countries, especially Japan, Canada, Great Britain, France, and Taiwan. A large plant was constructed on Tokunoshima Island by the Kyushu Electric Power Company, Inc. in 1987. Other OTEC experiments are presently being contemplated by France, Sweden, Indonesia, and Taiwan (State of Hawaii... ) . 

 "....the meek shall inherit the earth, but what good is a used up world and how could it be worth having?...." Sting 

It is a foregone conclusion that there is no magical panacea, no wondrous cure requiring no changes in the way we think about and utilize our natural resources that will save us from the energy crisis. Technologies which are appropriate to the particular situation , region or country need to be nurtured and funded to ensure their success. While solar power may serve ideally in the Caribbean and parts of South America, geothermal power may be more appropriate for the Nordic countries and wind power or OTEC in Great Britain. 

Artificial senses of security concerning petroleum supplies and the seriousness of the world dependency upon them should not be allowed to proliferate. While the present supplies of petroleum remain abundant, clean, efficient, renewable energy technologies should be funded and researched as a top priority. Alternative, renewable energy technologies must be implemented as soon as possible along with the fossil-fuel staples of the modern age to facilitate a steady and progressive transition of energy sources. Failing to do so will provide an excuse for maintaining the status quo of petroleum and leave the world vulnerable to economic and social disruption when oil reserves run low or political instability again erupts in oil-rich regions. 

Government policy can create the public awareness necessary for a successful acceptance of alternative energy programs. It can create demand push in the market by legislating mandates or can involve the utility companies to stimulate demand for alternative energies with rebates and low interest financing. The electric utility companies are the ones who have the incentive to reduce demand for power to prevent brown outs or to eliminate the need to add an expensive new generator. The utility companies also have the marketing ability to assist the local solar businesses and alternative energy marketers reach their customers. A long term utility program will also give manufacturers the necessary assurance and financial stability to establish assembly operations, thereby creating more jobs and helping to reduce the cost of m,any alternative energy technologies. 

In societies of 100 years ago or in those of today, the ability to introduce new technologies requires large scale public support or the failure of current technologies to perform up to public standards. Faced with what seemed like an inexhaustible fuel supply , solar power and other alternative energy forms did not find their way onto the U.S. agenda of 100 years ago, and they continue to be overlooked today. Despite series of modern political (OPEC oil crisis of the '70s, the Gulf War), environmental (smog, global warming ) and social complications (car dependent economy and city structures) associated with fossil fuel dependence, solar power and other alternative energy technologies seem to lack funding to progress beyond what engineers and scientists had accomplished 100 years ago. 

The "bigger, better, faster, more" routine of today’s society is possible to sustain indefinitely using technological fixes, but ultimately is that the goal of society ? ; to continually be in a state of crisis from which we need to emerge in order to progress. Conflicts and problems lead to creative thinking and new processes and technologies which help society to progress and lead to other breakthroughs and developments in areas originally unthought of, but how much progress is worth the stripping of the world we are to leave. Will future societies really thank us for intricate mazes of concrete, super-viruses, 100 year plus average life spans, genetically engineered humans, decreased fertility rates (in industrialized nations) and interactive televisions in lue of wilderness? Maybe, these are questions of future value judgements, but today’s generations are not leaving those of the future with much choice. 
  

Bibliography
Revisiting Solar Power's Past, Charles Smith, 1995 (http://web.mit.edu/afs/athena/org/t/techreview/www/articles/july95/Smith.html) 
Absorbers, Their Coating and Performance, The World Directory of RENEWABLE ENERGY Suppliers and Services, 1996 

Solar Glass and It's Transmissivity The World Directory of RENEWABLE ENERGY Suppliers and 

Services, 1996 

Overview of Solar Water Heating in the Caribbean, Griffin R. Carrison , REIA '94 Conference 

(http://www.solarenergy.net/tsen/database/griff.html) 

Institute of Space and Astronautical Science Solar Power Satellite Working Group, 1997 (http://www.reston.com/nasa/solar.sats.html) 

Chemistry 4th Edition, Steven S. Zumdahl, 1997, Houghton Mifflin Company, New York 

http://www.eren.doe.gov (U.S. Department of Energy) 

http://www.solarenergy.net/ (Solar Energy Network) 

http://www.hawaii.gov/dbedt/ert/ert_hmpg.html (State of Hawaii, Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism)  

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